Hammett, V. L., Omizo, M. M., & Loffredo, D. A. (1981). The effects of participation in a STEP program on parents' child-rearing attitudes and the self-concepts of their learning disabled children. The Exceptional Child, 28(3), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/0156655810280305

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 50 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Mothers: Not specified; Children: 5-8 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Predominantly White
• Gender — Mothers: 50 Female; Children: 39 Male and 11 Female
• Status — Participants were mothers of children classified as learning disabled by educational guidelines.

Location/Institution: Texas

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
This study examined the efficacy of the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program on parent's child-rearing attitudes for learning disabled children. Participants were randomly assigned to STEP treatment or to the control group. Both groups were tested two weeks prior to the treatment and two weeks after the treatment. Measures included the Parent Attitude Survey (PAS) and the Primary Self Concept Inventory (PSCI). Parents in the treatment group improved their PAS scores, particularly in the areas of Acceptance and Trust. Children's PSCI scores also showed improvements in the areas of Personal Self and Social Self. The authors note that examination of programs variables is needed to determined reasons for lack of effects on other subscales. Limitations include small sample size and length of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 2 weeks.

Nystul, M. S. (1982). The effects of Systematic Training for Effective Parenting on parental attitudes. The Journal of Psychology, 112(1), 63–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1982.9923535

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 42

Population:

• Age — 23–50 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 100% Caucasian
• Gender — 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers who applied for STEP training based on media advertisements.

Location/Institution: Brisbane, Australia

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the efficacy of the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program on parental attitudes. Mothers were randomly assigned to receive the STEP program, or to a wait-list control group. Measures utilized include the Attitude Toward the Freedom of Children Scale II (ATFC-II) and the Parent Attitude Research Instrument Q4 (PARI Q4). Results indicate that mothers in the treatment group were found to be more democratic in their child-rearing attitudes after training. They also differed from control mothers on the Encouraging Verbalization and showed a decrease on the Strictness subscales of the PARI Q4. Limitations include small sample size, lack of diversity and self-selection into the study by mothers, and lack of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Williams, R. E., Omizo, M. M., & Abrams, B. C. (1984). Effects of STEP on parental attitudes and locus of control of their learning disabled children. The School Counselor, 32(2), 126–133. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ311123

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 38 parent–child pairs

Population:

• Age — Parents: Not specified; Children: 9-12 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Parents: 100% White; Children: Not specified
• Gender — Parents: 32 Female and 6 Male; Children: 28 Male and 10 Female
• Status — Participants were volunteers with learning disable children recruited from a middle-to-upper-class suburban neighborhood.

Location/Institution: Los Angeles

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the efficacy of the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program on parental attitudes. Participants were randomly assigned to the STEP treatment or control condition. Measures utilized include the Parent Attitude Survey (PAS) and the Locus of Control Inventory for Three Achievement Domains (LOCITAD). Results indicate that children in the treatment condition showed improvement relative to controls in all three domains. Parents PAS scores also improved on Trust, Acceptance, and Caution. Limitations include lack of diversity in the sample, self-selection into the study, and length of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 week.

Noller, P., & Taylor, R. (1989). Parent education and family relations. Family Relations, 38(2), 196–200. https://doi.org/10.2307/583675

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 62

Population:

• Age — Female: 25-46 years; Male: 26-51 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
• Gender — Not specified
• Status — Participants were parents who had already enrolled in one of two parent education programs (STEP or Parent Effectiveness Training).

Location/Institution: Australia

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the efficacy of the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program on family relations. Participants were enrolled in either the STEP program or a Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) program. Measures utilized include the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, the Parents Rating of Program Effectiveness, and the Areas of Change in Parenting Scale. Results indicate that the two programs were seen as equally effective. Limitations include lack of direct measures of change in parenting or in children’s behaviors, lack of randomization, and length of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 8 weeks.

Jonyniene , J., Kern, R. M., & Gfroerer, K. P. (2015). Efficacy of Lithuanian Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) on parenting style and perception of child behavior. The Family Journal, 23(4), 392–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480715574473

Type of Study: Pretest-posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 647

Population:

• Age — Parents: Average=36-37 years; Children: Average=8-9 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Parents: 94% Lithuanian and 6% Other; Children: Not specified
• Gender — Parents: 88% Female and 12% Male; Children: 59% Male and 41% Female
• Status — Participants were parents who volunteered to participate in the STEP program.

Location/Institution: Lithuania

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the short- and long-term efficacy of the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program on parents from Lithuania. Participants were assigned to either the STEP group (intervention) or the comparison group. Measures utilized include the Lithuanian STEP Parent Survey Form, the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire–Short Form (PSDQ-Short Form), and the Adlerian Parental Assessment of Child’s Behavior Scale (APACBS).  Results indicate that parents of both genders demonstrated an increase in knowledge on parenting related to child’s misbehavior, encouragement, discipline, logical consequences, and so forth. Mothers decreased the use of authoritarian and permissive parenting styles and perceived the targeted child’s behavior as less emotionally charging with a decrease in peer-related problematic behavior. Limitations include lack of randomization, lack of generalizability due to gender, and length of follow-up. 

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 3-4 months.

Ceballos, P. L., Lin, Y. W., Bratton, S. C., & Lindo, N. (2019). Effects of parenting programs on Latina mothers’ parental stress and their children’s internalizing behavioral problems. Journal of Child and Adolescent Counseling, 5(1), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/23727810.2018.1556983

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 21

Population:

• Age — Children: 3-8 years; Mothers: 20-45 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Mothers: 100% Latina
• Gender — Children: 12 Male and 8 Female; Mothers: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were low-income, immigrant Latina mothers reporting high levels of parental stress and child internalizing problems.

Location/Institution: Southeast region of the United States

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the comparative effects of two empirically supported, manualized parenting programs, Child–Parent Relationship Therapy (CPRT) and Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP). Participants were randomly assigned to either CPRT or STEP. Measures utilized include the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Parenting Stress Index (PSI). Results indicate that compared to STEP, CPRT demonstrated a medium to large treatment effect on children’s internalizing problems, although between group differences were not statistically significant. Results for parental stress indicated no statistically or practically significant between-group differences. Within-group treatment effects revealed larger effects for the CPRT group for internalizing behavior problems and parental stress. Clinical significance of the findings indicated greater improvement for children and mothers in the CPRT group. Limitations include attrition rates differed greatly between CPRT and STEP, small sample size, lack of a control group, and lack of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Steele, H., Murphy, A., Bonuck, K., Meissner, P., & Steele, M. (2019). Randomized control trial report on the effectiveness of Group Attachment-Based Intervention (GABI©): Improvements in the parent–child relationship not seen in the control group. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001621

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 78

Population:

• Age — Children: Less than 3 years; Mothers: Not specified
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Mothers: GABI: 47% Hispanic, 28% Black, 23% Biracial, and 2% White; STEP: 40% Hispanic, 37% Black, 17% Biracial, and 5% White
• Gender — Children: Not specified; Mothers: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers at risk of maltreating their children.

Location/Institution: The Bronx, New York

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to report on a trial involving children less than 3 years old and their mothers who were regarded at risk of maltreating their children by referral agencies. Mothers were randomly assigned to either Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) or the Group Attachment-Based Intervention (GABI). Measures utilized include the Coding Interactive Behavior (CIB) system, and the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). Results indicate that in comparison to STEP, GABI was linked to significant improvements in maternal supportive presence and dyadic reciprocity, and significant declines in maternal hostility and dyadic constriction (proxies for risk of child maltreatment). These medium-to large-sized effects remained significant even after controlling for mothers’ prior ACEs in analysis of covariance procedures. In addition, two small interaction effects of ACEs by treatment type were found. Limitations include different length (and characteristics) of treatment in the two arms, lack of follow-up, and high attrition rate.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.